Islam was a defining force in the daily lives of people of the region, and likewise had an effect on the arts as well. Following strictly the dictate that ‘‘thou shalt not create any graven images’’ Islamic artists were prohibited from the depiction of figures of people or animals in art. Instead the art of Islam abounds with floral motifs and intricate geometry and Arabesques. The prohibition was not followed strictly, especially in the more domestic arts of the home, but was rarely used in any religious context.
· INTRODUCTION
"For the contemplative man a lesson can be learned from everything."
(Sufyan al-Thawri)
The art of Islam is essentially a contemplative art, which aims to express above all, an encounter with the Divine Presence. The origin of Islamic art has often tried to be explained through tracing it back to some precedent in Byzantine, Sassanid, Coptic or other art, yet what is lost sight of, is the intrinsic and original unity of Islamic art and thus the 'seal' that Islam conferred on all borrowed elements.
· In order to understand the essence of Islamic art it is first necessary to realise the different conceptions of art itself. From the European point of view, the criterion of an artistic culture lies in its capacity to represent nature and even more in its capacity to portray man. From the Islamic point of view, on the contrary, the main scope of art is not the imitation or description of nature - the work of man will never equal the art of God - but the shaping of the human ambience. Art has to endow all the objects with which man naturally surrounds himself - a house, a fountain, a drinking vessel, a garment, a carpet - with the perfection each object can posses according to its own nature. Islamic art does not add something alien to the objects that it shapes; it merely brings out their essential qualities.
· In traditional art, beauty and use go hand in hand; they are two inseparable aspects of perfection, as envisaged by the Prophetic tradition: 'God has prescribed perfection in all things.' It is connected with the concept of ihsan as set forth in the Hadith of Gabriel, whereby the religion rests on three fundamental principles: Islam (submission to the Divine Will), Iman (faith), and Ihsan. Ihsan may be translated as 'spiritual virtue' or simply virtue, and includes the ideas of beauty and perfection. More exactly it means inward beauty, beauty of the soul or of the heart, which necessarily emanates outwards, transforming every human activity into an art and every art into the remembrance of God.
· If we consider inward beauty and outward beauty, we find the latter has its origin in the former. To the extent that human activities are integrated into Islam, they become a support for beauty - a beauty which in fact transcends these activities because it is the beauty of Islam itself. This is particularly true of the fine arts, as it is their role to manifest the hidden qualities of things. The art of Islam receives its beauty not from any ethnic genius but from Islam itself and just as Islamic science has its roots in the Qur'an and hadith, so the typical forms of Islamic art are rooted in the spirit of Islam.
·
An important lesson that Islamic art provides is in challenging the notion that
works of art from earlier centuries need to be studied as historical
'phenomena', which belong to the past and have very little to do with the
future. Against this relativistic point of view, for the Muslim, the great
mosques of Kairawan, Cordoba, Cairo, Damascus, Isfahan, Herat and so on belong
as much to the present as to the past, insofar as it is possible to realise the
state of mind of those who created them, and thus what is timeless in the art of
our spiritual ancestors is the roots in Islam itself.
(Source: Burckhardt T, Mirror of the Intellect)
In contrast to Western art, in which painting and sculpture are pre-eminent, it
is in the so-called decorative arts that Islamic art found its primary means of
expression. Through the diversity of the Islamic Empire, which linked together,
for the first time in history, such varied and distant peoples as Spaniards,
Africans, Persians, Turks, Egyptians and Indians, a quick dissemination of
knowledge and artistic merging arose. In ceramics, as in other craft arts, such
as metal and wood work as well as work in cloth, the resources which had been
developed by designers throughout the region, from Coptic plaster-workers and
weavers in Egypt to silversmiths in Iran, were brought together in a new art
with its own traits. While Arab nomadic culture lacked a grand imperial art,
aesthetics tastes contributed essential elements to Islamic art. Nomads
treasured the minor arts of textiles and weapons, and lavished them with
geometrical decoration which was to have a lasting impact on Islamic art.
In metalwork, Muslim artisans crafted elaborate boxes, basins, bowls, jugs and
incense burners decorated with arabesques, inscriptions, and other highly
stylised plant forms, specialising also in brass and bronze, luxuriously inlaid
with gold, silver and copper. In carpet making, the Islamic world is renowned
for their great beauty and technical excellence, employing different motifs and
favouring certain colour schemes.
Similarly in ceramics, they succeeded in developing many original decorative
techniques in lustre ware and tile making which were unsurpassed. During
Parthian and Sasanian
times,
the ceramic arts had been little patronised by the wealthy, especially east of
Iraq. Even in villages, the pottery remained undistinguished as compared with
that of earlier centuries. But for the first time, under Islamic Abbasid rule,
porcelains imported from China (in its expansive Tang period) inspired a
distinct revival of ceramic art. The porcelain imports could not be duplicated,
but ways were found to imitate its whiteness. They succeeded in developing many
original decorative techniques including lustre ware and a method of polychrome
painted ware called Minai. These same decorative techniques were utilized in
tile making, in which Muslims were unsurpassed.Whether produced in a courtly or
an urban setting or for a religious context, Islamic art is generally the work
of anonymous artists. A notable exception is in the sphere of the arts of the
book. The names of certain calligraphers are well known, which is not surprising
given the primacy of the written word in Islam, as are those of a number of
painters, most of whom were attached to a particular court. The identification
of these artists has been based on signed or attributed examples of their works
and on textual references. Given the great number of extant examples,
comparatively few signatures are found on metalwork, pottery, carved wood and
stone, and textiles.
Those signatures that do occur, combined with rare evidence from contemporary textual sources, suggest that families of artists, often over several generations, specialized in a particular medium or technique.Often time the artist was an artisan whose stock of patterns and technical skills were handed down from generation to generation within specialised families. Learning the techniques, the firing or glazing of the pottery, the weaving of the cloth etc., and learning the particular shapes and designs to be used, formed a single process in training the young.
"He who knows himself, knows His Lord"
(Saying of the Prophet, pbuh)
The least artisanal work, such as woodwork, pottery, weaving, and so forth includes, beyond its material technique, a certain transmitted science, sometimes reduced to some very simple rules but always bearing an aspect of wisdom, which the artisan will more or less penetrate, according to the degree of his contemplative intelligence and his experience.
It has been said that work with ones hands allows one to know oneself. In this
way, manual art can be a means through which man is better able to contemplate
on his Lord. Not only by recognising the bounty of materials that God has
provided him/her with, but also, more importantly through
recognition of ones own capabilities and limitations as an artisan, when
comparing his work to the Greatest of Crafters.
From an Islamic perspective art consists in fashioning objects in a manner
conformable to their nature, for that nature has a virtual content of beauty,
since it comes from God; all one has to do is release that beauty in order to
make it apparent. According to the most general Islamic conception, art is no
more than a method of ennobling matter. And since there is no better action than
the remembrance of God, according to the sayings of the Prophet (pbuh), a craft
can be good only to the degree to which it aids in this remembrance, directly or
indirectly.
Just as knowledge of Qur'an and hadith, according to traditional Islamic teaching, needs to be passed down through an unbroken golden chain from teacher to student leading back to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Similarly this wisdom and baraka (spiritual blessing) is recognised and permeates many aspects of the conscientious Muslim's life even in the domain of craftsmanship. This is best encapsulated by the following account found in Titus Burckhardt's in his book "Fez: City of Islam"
"I knew a comb-maker who worked in the street of his guild, called Abd al-Aziz
(slave of the Almighty). He obtained the horn for his combs from ox skulls,
which he bought from butchers. He dried the horn skulls at a rented place,
removed the horns, opened them lengthwise, and straightened them over a fire, a
procedure that had to be done with greatest care, lest they should break. From
this raw material he cut combs and turned boxes for antimony (used as an eye
decoration) on a simple lathe; this he did by manipulating with his left hand a
bow which, wrapped around a spindle, caused the apparatus to rotate. In his
right hand he held the knife, and with his foot he pushed against the
counter-weight. As he worked he would sing the Koranic suras in a humming tone.
I learned that as a result of an eye disease which is common in Africa, he was
already half blind and that, in view of long practice, he was able to 'feel' his
work rather than see it. One day he complained to me that the importation of
plastic combs was diminishing his business: 'It is not only a pity that today,
solely on account of price, poor quality combs from a factory are being
preferred to much more durable horn combs,' he said; 'it is also senseless that
people should stand by a machine and mindlessly repeat the same movement, while
an old craft like mine falls into oblivion. My work may seem crude to you; but
it harbours a subtle meaning which cannot be explained in words. I myself
acquired it only after many long years, and even if I wanted to, I could not
automatically pass it on to my son, if he himself did not wish to acquire it-and
I think he would rather take up another occupation. This craft can be traced
back from apprentice to master until one reaches our Lord Seth, the son of Adam.
It was he who first taught it to man, and what a Prophet brings-for Seth was a
Prophet-must clearly have a special purpose-both outwardly and inwardly. I
gradually came to understand that there is nothing fortuitous about this craft,
that each movement and each procedure is a bearer of an element of wisdom. But
not everyone can understand this. But even if one does not know this, it is
still stupid and reprehensible to rob men of the inheritance of Prophets, and to
put them in front of a machine where, day in and day out, they must perform a
meaningless task."
In light of Islamic history, the role of futuwwah in craftsmanship guilds cannot go unmentioned. With the expansion of the Islamic Empire and increasing urbanisation, craftsmen were often organised into guilds, which normally formed military contingents charged with the defence of the city. These guilds were often initiatic in nature and were permeated by the ideals held among the medieval brotherhoods of futuwwah.
The term futuwwah is derived from fata or youth and is used in the Qur'an concerning Abraham (pbuh) after he broke the idols of the idol worshippers in an attempt to convince them of their powerlessness and thus the futility in worshipping them: "So he broke them to pieces, (all) but the biggest of them, that they might turn (and address themselves) to it. They said, who has done this to our gods? He must be indeed some man of impiety! They said: We heard a youth (fata) make mention of them, who is called Abraham" Qur'an Al-Anbiyaa 21:58-60
Thus the fata is he who breaks an idol, and the idol of each man is his ego. Futuwwah being, on the highest level, the art by means of which we become ourselves and gain full awareness of our primordial nature. This is essentially subservience to God in recognising and acknowledging the covenant made between God and man when, according to the Qur'an, God asked man:
"Am I not your Lord?" and man replies "Yea!"
Qur'an A'raf 7:172
This could perhaps explain to an extent the anonymity of much of Islamic art and in particular the arts related to craft, as was mentioned earlier. In this way the artisan in recognising his skill, sees it only as a gift from God, rather than an intrinsic characteristic that somehow classes him above others, and thus uses his craft as a means not only to glorify is Creator but also to share that awareness with others who come across his craft.
Futuwwah became the spirit and guiding principle of many guilds in Persia, Anatolia, Syria, and other regions of the Islamic world. Through it, the activities of the artisan were integrated into the religious life, and the outward activity of craftsmen became the support for the "inner work." By penetrating the everyday activities of Islamic society, art became integrated into the spiritual dimension of Islam, not only theoretically but also in practice, transforming the soul of those who in turn transformed and ennobled matter in that universal activity which is art in its traditional sense.
In one of the most famous episodes in the Mathnawi, Rumi has summarised in immortal Persian poetry what lies at the heart of futuwwah, namely selfless generosity, courage, and detached action combined with sincerity (iklhas) and dedication to God. The account involves the battle between 'Ali (RA) and a warrior who had engaged him upon a battlefield:
"Learn how to act sincerely [ikhlas] from 'Ali:
know the Lion of God ('Ali) was purged of (all) deceit.
In fighting against the infidels he got the upper hand of (vanquished)
a certain knight, and quickly drew a sword and made haste (to slay him).
He spat on the face of 'Ali, the pride of every prophet and every saint;
He spat on the countenance before which the face of the moon
bows low in the place of worship.
'Ali at once threw his sword away and relaxed (his efforts) in fighting him.
That champion was astounded by this act and by his showing
forgiveness and mercy without occasion.
He said, "You lifted your keen sword against me:
why have you flung it aside and spared me?
What did you see that was better than combat with me,
so that you have become slack in hunting me down?
What did you see, so that such anger as your abated,
and so that such a lightning flashed and (then) recoiled?……….
He ['Ali] said, "I am wielding the sword for God's sake,
I am the servant of God, I am not under the command of the body.
I am the Lion of God, I am not the Lion of Passion:
my deed bears witness to my religion…..
I have removed the baggage of self out of the way,
I have deemed (what is) other than God to be non-existence."
HISTORY OF ISLAMIC ART
"History is a mirror of the past and a lesson for the present."
(Persian Proverb)
Islam began in early seventh century in Arabia and quickly spread throughout the Middle East. Before the following century Islam had already spread to Byzantium, Persia, Africa, Europe and some parts of Asia, where many people converted to Islam. In its first thousand years, from the revelations to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) to the great Islamic empires of the eighteenth, Islamic civilization flourished. While Europeans suffered through the Dark Ages, Muslims in such cities as Jerusalem, Damascus, Alexandria, Fez, Tunis, Cairo, and Baghdad made remarkable advances in philosophy, science, medicine, literature, and art. The uniting of so many diverse cultures under one religion had the advantage of quickly disseminating the latest and best discoveries to all parts of the realm. Paper making from China, "Arabic" numerals from India, classical Greek science and philosophy translations, and significant contributions in chemistry, physics and mathematics were all shared. All these diverse influences encouraged a new civilization to emerge which would generate a new form of cultural expression and new artistic styles.
I) Islamic Art (7th to mid-13th)
Under the Abbasid caliphate, which succeeded the Umayyads (661–750), the focal point of Islamic political and cultural life shifted eastward from Syria to Iraq, where, in 762, Baghdad, the circular City of Peace (madinat al-salam), was founded as the new capital. The first two centuries of Abbasid rule saw the emergence and dissemination of a new Islamic style of art where purely Islamic forms and new techniques were introduced.
Textiles
Of the many diverse arts that flourished during the Abbasid period, textiles played an especially significant role in society, one that continued in subsequent periods. Textiles were ubiquitous in Islamic lands, serving as clothing, household furnishings, and portable architecture (tents). The manufacture of and trade in textiles were highly sophisticated and profitable industries that built upon Byzantine and Sasanian traditions. Often made with costly materials such as silk, and gold and silver wrapped thread and decorated with complex designs, textiles were luxury goods signifying wealth and social status. Islamic textiles were also widely exported to the West, where their prominence is underscored by their impact on European languages. Did you know that the English words "cotton" and "taffeta" derive, respectively, from Arabic and Persian?
Pottery
The
art of pottery was greatly advanced in the ninth century with the development of
the technique of luster painting. Luster painting is a spectacular means of
decorating pottery, perhaps in imitation of precious metal, which was first
developed in Iraq and subsequently spread to Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Spain. The
production of luster-decorated pottery was complicated, costly, and
time-consuming, indicating that such objects were regarded as luxury wares.
Lusterware can vary in color from a rich gold to a deep reddish brown.
Architectural Ornament
Another city north of Baghdad, called Samarra replaced the capital for a brief
period (836–892). The site of Samarra is particularly significant for
understanding the art and architecture of the Abbasid period. In this new
capital, a new way of carving surfaces, the so-called beveled style, as well as
a repetition of abstract geometric or pseudo-vegetal forms, later to be known in
the West as "arabesque", were widely used as wall decoration and became popular
in other media such as wood and metalwork.The architectural ornament, rendered
in stucco, wood, or stone is one of the most important arts of the ninth
century. This style was soon adopted by artists in many parts of the Islamic
empire, including Egypt. Wood on account of its rarity and cost, was decorated
with care and used in contexts generally reserved for luxury materials.
By the mid-ninth century Abbasid political unity had begun to crumble, and by the tenth century Abbasid authority was effectively limited to Iraq. Elsewhere in the Islamic world a series of dynasties in Egypt, North Africa, Spain, and Iran fostered the development of indigenous styles of Islamic art.
The Fatimids evidently had a taste for meticulously fabricated goldwork and intricately carved vessels of rock crystal, a type of transparent, colorless quartz whose surface can be brilliantly burnished. The glassworking was also a highly developed art form.The opulence of the Fatimid court fueled a renaissance in the decorative arts, which made Cairo the most important cultural center in the Islamic world. Nearby, Old Cairo, known as al-Fustat, became a major center for the production of pottery, glass, and metalwork, and rock-crystal, ivory, and wood carving, textile factories run by government officials created tiraz fabrics in the name of the caliph elsewhere in the Egyptian region, especially the Nile Delta. The artwork from this period exemplifies the creativity and ingenuity of Fatimid craftsmen. The technique of lusterware on ceramic, developed originally in Iraq, was revived in Egypt and Syria. Some lusterware pieces from this period are signed by their makers, an indication of the esteem in which the craftsmen were held. Wood carving and jewelry were executed with equal skill and inventiveness. Fatimid artists created new decorative motifs and made greater use of figural forms, both human and animal. Figures were stylized but lively, while traditional vegetal and geometric decorations maintained their abstract quality. Artisans of this period revived or continued earlier techniques but gave them their own distinctive stamp.
In the eleventh century the Seljuks briefly ruled over a vast empire that included all of Iran, the Fertile Crescent, and most of Anatolia, or Turkey. By the end of the century, however, this empire had disintegrated into smaller kingdoms ruled by different branches of the Seljuk house. Like the Ghaznavids, these ethnic Turks embraced Persian culture and adopted the Persian language.Turkish rule in Asia Minor was initiated under the Saljuqs following their victory over the Byzantine army in eastern Anatolia in 1071. This important event paved the way for the gradual introduction of Islam and Turkish culture into Anatolia. The Saljuq sultanate of Rum (that is, Byzantium) endured until the beginning of the fourteenth century, although from the mid-thirteenth century the Saljuqs served merely as governors under the Mongols.
The
Seljuks, Central Asiatic tribesmen, entered the Islamic world at the beginning
of the 11th century. A few decades later they occupied the whole of Iran. A
branch called the Seljuks of Rum moved west to settle in Asia Minor (now
Turkey). From the 11th century until the coming of the Mongols in the early
13th, the Seljuks ushered in a period of relative peace in which all the arts
flourished under their patronage. The Seljuk period is one of the most
creatively exciting in the history of Islamic art. Although of humble nomadic
beginnings, the Seljuks, once settled, commissioned buildings of majestic
proportions and objects of matchless beauty.
In their desire to imitate contemporary Chinese Song ceramics, the Seljuks were
responsible for the most important innovation in early medieval Islamic pottery.
They rediscovered a frit body of clay, quartz, and potash, an ancient Egyptian
invention which permitted a variety of color and decoration.
Also under the Seljulk rule the great periods of Islamic metalworking occured.
The earliest known distinctive style of Persian painting dates back to the Seljuk period, which is often referred to as the "Baghdad School". Early painting was mainly used to decorate manuscripts and versions of the Holy Koran, though some 13th century pottery found near Tehran indicates an early, unique Persian style of art. During the Mongol period, paintings were used to decorate all sorts of book
ISLAMIC PATTERNS & GEOMETRY
Geometric motifs were popular with Islamic artists and designers in all parts of the world, for decorating almost every surface, whether walls or floors, pots or lamps, book covers or textiles. As Islam spread from nation to nation and region to region, Islamic artists combined their penchant for geometry with existing traditions, creating a new and distinctive Islamic art. This art expressed the logic and order inherent in the Islamic vision of the universe.
The wide spectrum of intellectual treasures allowed Islamic scholars to quickly embrace Greek philosophy and mathematics, translating and disseminating this knowledge for posterity. The works of Euclid and Pythagoras were among the first to be translated into Arabic. The study of geometry also fed an ardent preoccupation with the stars and astronomy. All this in turn nourished the Arabic passion for creating infinite, decorative patterns. The cultivation of mathematical analysis, in particular, had a harmonising effect. Driven by the religious passion for abstraction and the related doctrine of unity -- al-tawhid, the Muslim intellectuals recognized in geometry the unifying intermediary between the material and the spiritual world.
The development of this new distinctive art, in part may have been due to the discouragement of images in Islam on basis that it could lead to idolatry. For the Muslim, in recognising the reality of the fundamental formula of Islam: "There is no divinity other than God". He sees in figurative art, a fundamental error or illusion in projecting the nature of the absolute into the relative, by attributing to the relative an autonomy that does not belong to it. (See Aniconism) In this way, Islamic artists did not seek to express themselves as such, but rather aimed to ennoble matter.Whilst this tradition may have frustrated some Islamic artists, others took up the challenge and became the greatest pattern makers of their time. Instead of covering buildings and other surfaces with human figures, they developed complex geometric decorative designs, as well as intricate patterns of vegetal ornament (such as the arabesque), with which to adorn palaces and mosques and other public places.
Alternatively, the development of infinitely repeating patterns can represent the unchanging laws of God. Muslims are expected to observe certain rules as were originally set forth by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), characterised by the "Pillars of Faith". In this way the rules of construction of geometric patterns provide a visual analogy to religious rules of behavior.
"... as the soul of an individual seeks sources and reasons for its existence it
is led inward and away from the three-dimensional world towards fewer and more
comprehensive ideas and principles"
(Critchlow)
Both the contemplation of and the creative skill in making patterns lead in their own way to an understanding of the perfections of Universal Nature as it moves the elements. Islamic pattern, unique as an art form, is also unitary in its aim and function. Symbols can exhaust verbal explanation but verbal explanation can in no way exhaust symbols -and the symbols inherent in Islamic pattern and geometry are directed towards that undifferentiated unity.
Thus, the circle, and its centre, are the point at which all Islamic patterns begin and is an apt symbol of a religion that emphasizes one God, symbolising also, the role of Mecca, the center of Islam, toward which all Moslems face in prayer. The circle has always been regarded as a symbol of eternity, without being and without end, and is not only the perfect expression of justice-equality in all directions in a finite domain--but also the most beautiful parent of all polygons, both containing and underlying them.
From the circle comes three fundamental figures in Islamic art, the triangle, square and hexagon. The triangle by tradition is symbolic of human consciousness and the principle of harmony. The square, the symbol of physical experience and the physical world-or materiality-and the hexagon, of Heaven. Another symbol prevalent in Islamic art is the star and has been the chosen motif for many Islamic decorations. In Islamic iconography the star is a regular geometric shape that symbolizes equal radiation in all directions from a central point. All regular stars -- whether they have 6, 8, 10, 12, or 16 points -- are created by a division of a circle into equal parts. The center of the star is center of the circle from which it came, and its points touch the circumference of the circle. The rays of a star reach out in all directions, making the star a fitting symbol for the spread of Islam.
One such use of the of the star in mosaics is in 'God's spider web', the very name of which evokes the 'miracle of the spider': When the Prophet (pbuh), to escape his persecutors, fled from Mecca, he and his companion Abu Bakr hid for three days and three nights in a cave. The hostile Meccans rode out in search of them, and on the first morning they reached the entrance to the cave. But a spider had spun its net across it, a dove had laid its eggs on the threshold, and a wild rose-bush had stretched out its blossoming branches, so that the pursuers thought that no one could possibly have recently entered the cave. The mosaic spider's web, however, resembles its model only remotely. It is in fact a geometrical rosette, which begins as a star and then extends outwards in interlacing bands, that follow a rigorous plan, and form a rich extensive network. Several such complete designs can intertwine with one another on one surface, and then they form, especially when they originate in stars with varying numbers of rays, a shimmering planetarium, in which each line starts from a centre and leads to a centre, a motif that once again strongly evokes the Islamic idea of omnipresent unity.
Even though the geometric patterns, consisted of, or were generated from, such simple forms as the circle and the square, they were combined, duplicated, interlaced, and arranged in intricate combinations, becoming one of the most distinguishing features of Islamic art. However, these complex patterns seem to embody a refusal to adhere strictly to the rules of geometry. As a matter of fact, geometric ornamentation in Islamic art suggests a remarkable amount of freedom; in its repetition and complexity, it offers the possibility of infinite growth and can accommodate the incorporation of other types of ornamentation as well. In terms of their abstractness, repetitive motifs, and symmetry, geometric patterns have much in common with the so-called arabesque style seen in many vegetal designs. Calligraphic ornamentation also appears in conjunction with geometric patterns.
Many of the patterns used in Islamic art look similar, even though they decorate different objects. They are are two dimensional both in form and intent and are made up of a small number of repeated geometric elements that create a complex whole by repeating a few elements and. This practical and useful level of operation of archetypal expressions in no way diminishes or reduces their effectiveness as symbols, on the contrary it merely reinforces the fact that what we take to be simple and 'in the nature of things' has become profound to the point of us becoming oblivious to it, in much the same way that we find ourselves in an environment with a great deal of noise for any appreciable length of time we cut out our awareness of that noise.
Book illumination
As indicated above, the earliest appearances of the girih mode (the classical Islamic decorative style that includes both geometric and vegetal forms) are found in late 10th/4thcentury Qur’an manuscripts that are believed to have originated in Baghdad. It is thought likely that this style spread out to other mediums from this source. Although the precise mechanisms by which this style was transmitted are obscure, obviously it would have been facilitated by the widespread availability of paper soon after this time.
The three components of the Islamic decorative canon (calligraphy, of course, geometrical and vegetal arabesque arrangements) which were established in this medium continued to be a feature of the Islamic arts of the book, with every period making its own contribution to the genre. As the most elevated of all objects the Qur’an naturally always received the most respectful and inspired treatment, but there are also many examples of geometrical patterning and arabesque in secular book illustration. Clearly, the art of decoration was taken seriously in Islamic culture; patterns had a currency. Their appearance in the portable arts i.e. of the book, in craft-albums and working drawings, meant that existing examples could be reworked and improved upon, and those who specialised in decorative patterns could inspire new directions in this way. There are countless examples of intricate pattern in each of the major traditions of miniature painting (Turkish, Persian and Mughal Indian, in fact sometimes they are positively teeming with them. The exploration and playing with decorative ideas that is evident in so many of these works is probably indicative of a general interest in the subject in studios of various kinds. Sadly, apart from these examples and the few surviving folios and working drawings, the originators of the majority of these brilliant patterns and arabesques are likely to remain obscure.
Examples & samples
ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of the Islamic world throughout history adapted and responded to different cultures and existing traditions of buildings without weakening the spiritual essence which was its source of inspiration. Urban centers in Islamic cities evolved over long periods of time with generations of craftsmen whose sensitivity and experience added variety and a diversity of styles to the environment. The traditional Islamic city reflected a unity which related the architecture of the mosque, the madrassa , the souq, palace and the home as a sequence of spaces. The identity of the city lay in the relationship of its elements. These relationships were generated by the harmonizing of the community with the forces acting on it, that enabled the interaction of cultures, building methods and methods to evolve an Islamic identity in the same way a language maintains its own identity even when it absorbs outside words. (Source: Martin, G: Buildings in the Middle East Today)
Islamic art is an art not so much of form as of decorative themes that occur both in architecture and in the applied arts, independently of material, scale and technique. There is never one type of decoration for one type of building or object; on the contrary, there are decorative principles that are pan-Islamic and applicable to all types of buildings and objects at all times (whence comes the intimate relationship in Islam between all the applied arts and architecture). Islamic art must therefore be considered in its entirety because each building and each object embodies to some extent identical principles. Though objects and art differ in quality of execution and style, the same ideas, forms and designs constantly recur. Because little furniture is traditionally used for daily life in Islam, decoration contributes to the creation of a sense of continuous space that is a hallmark of Islamic architecture.
Islamic design may seem restricted to two dimensions but that the very character of Islamic design implies three-dimensional possibilities. Through the use of reflecting and shining materials and glazes, the repetition of designs, the contrasting of textures and the manipulation of planes, Islamic decoration becomes complex, sumptuous and intricate. It is an art of repose where tensions are resolved. Regardless of form, material or scale, this concept of art rests on a basic foundation of calligraphy, geometry and, in architecture, the repetition and multiplication of elements based on the arch. "Allied and parallel to these are floral and figural motifs," Jones writes. "Water and light are also of paramount importance to Islamic architectural decoration as they generate additional layers of patterns and -- just as happens with surface decoration -- they transform space. Space is defined by surface and since surface is articulated by decoration, there is an intimate connection in Islamic architecture between space and decoration. It is the variety and richness of the decoration, with its endless permutations, that characterizes the buildings rather than their structural elements, which are often disguised. Many devices typical of Islamic architectural decoration -- for example, muqarnas [a honeycomb decoration that can reflect and refract light]-- are explained by a desire to dissolve the barriers between those elements of the buildings that are structural (load-bearing) and those that are ornamental (non-load-bearing). (Sources: Jones, D: Architecture of the Islamic World; Islamic Arts and Architecture Organisation)
To view Islamic architectural monuments from around the world click here
Because of its role in recording the word of God, calligraphy is considered one of the most important of the Islamic arts. Nearly all Islamic buildings have some type of surface inscription in the stone, stucco, marble, mosaic and/or painting. The inscription might be a verse from the Qur'an, lines of poetry, or names and dates.
Like other Islamic decoration, calligraphy is closely linked to geometry. The proportions of the letters are all governed by mathematics. Inscriptions are most often used as a frame along and around main elements of a building like portals and cornices.
An inscription also might be contained in a single panel. Sometimes single words such as Allah or Mohammed are repeated and arranged into patterns over the entire surface of the walls. Calligraphic texts might appear in pierced cartouches, providing a pattern for light filtering through windows.
Light
For many Muslims there is no more perfect a symbol of the Divine Unity than light. "God is the light of the heavens and the earth..." <Qur'an Nur 24:35> Just as shadow adds nothing to light, things are real only to the extent that they share in the light of Being. Light viewed directly is blinding; it is through the harmony of colours that we divine nature, which bears every visual phenomenon within itself. For this reason, the Muslim artist seeks to transform the very stuff he is fashioning into a vibration of light. In Islamic architecture, light functions decoratively by modifying other elements or by originating patterns. Thus in covering the interior surface of a mosque with mosaics in ceramic tiles, for example, the lining is often confined to the lower part of the walls, as if to dispel their heaviness. It is for the same purpose that the artists transforms other surfaces into perforated reliefs to filter the light. "Stalactites" also serve to trap light and diffuse it with the most subtle gradations, and with the proper light, pierced facades can look like lacy, disembodied screens. Light can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending patterns, forms and designs into the dimensions of time. And the combination of light and shade creates strong contrasts of planes and gives texture to sculpted stone, as well as stocked or brick surfaces.
(Source: Burckhardt T, Islamic Spirituality II edited by S H Nasr)
Geometry
Islamic artists developed geometric patterns to a degree of complexity and sophistication previously unknown. These patterns exemplify the Islamic interest in repetition, symmetry and continuous generation of pattern. "The superb assurance of the Islamic designers is demonstrated by their masterful integration of geometry with such optical effects as the balancing of positive and negative areas, interlacing with fluid overlapping and underpassing strapwork, and a skillful use of color and tone values.
"...More than any other type of design (geometric patterns) permitted an interrelationship between the parts and the whole of a building complex, the exterior and the interior spaces and their furnishings."
Floral patterns
Islamic artists reproduced nature with a great deal of accuracy. Flowers and trees might be used as the motifs for the decoration of textiles, objects and buildings. In the Mughal architectural decoration of India, artists were inspired by European botanical drawings, as well as by Persian traditional flora. Their designs might be applied to monochrome panels of white marble, with rows of flowering plants exquisitely carved in low relief, alternating with delicately tinted polychrome inlays of precious and hard stones, Jones notes.
The arabesque (geometricized vegetal ornament) is "characterized by a continuous stem which splits regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems which can in turn split again or return to be reintegrated into the main stem," writes Jones. "This limitless, rhythmical alternation of movement, conveyed by the reciprocal repetition of curved lines, produces a design that is balanced and free from tension. In the arabesque, perhaps more than in any other design associated with Islam, it is clear how the line defines space, and how sophisticated three-dimensional effects are achieved by differences in width, color and texture...."
"The underlying geometric grids governing arabesque designs are based on the same mathematical principles that determine wholly geometric patterns...."
Figures and animals
Because the creation of living things that move -- that is, humans and animals -- is considered to be in the realm of God, Islam discourages artists from producing such figures through art. Nevertheless, a certain amount of figural art can be found in the Islamic world, although it is mainly confined to the decoration of objects and secular buildings and to miniature paintings. Figural sculpture is quite rare in Islam.
Water
In hot Islamic climates, the water from courtyard pools and fountains cools as it decorates. Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply the decorative themes, it can also serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axes. Like the images they mirror, Jones writes, pools of water are immutable, yet constantly changing; fluid and dynamic, yet static.
ANICONISM
"Everything you
imagine Him to be, He is other than"
(Islamic Saying)
Islamic aniconism is the term used to describe the absence of icons in Islamic art. Islam is centred on Unity, and Unity is not expressible in terms of any image. Thus, Islamic art as a whole aims to create an ambience which helps man to realise his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol' even in a relative and provisional manner - nothing must stand between man and the invisible presence of God - thus eliminating all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world and in their stead creating an order that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace.
According to the fundamental formula of Islam: There is no divinity other than God (la ila ha illa lah), it is through the distinction of the different planes of reality that everything is gathered together beneath the vault of Supreme Unity, once one has recognised the finite for what it is one can no longer consider it "alongside of" the Infinite, and for that very reason the finite reintegrates itself with the Infinite. From this point of view the fundamental error is that of projecting nature of the Absolute into the relative, by attributing to the relative an autonomy that does not belong to it: the primary source of this error is imagination, or more precisely illusion (al-wahm), therefore a Muslim sees in the figurative art a flagrant and contagious manifestation of the said error; in his view the image projects one order of reality into another. Against this the only effective safeguard is wisdom (hikmah), which puts everything in its proper place. As applied to art, this means that every artistic creation must be treated according to the laws of its domain of existence and must make those laws intelligible.
The Islamic negation of anthropomorphic art is both absolute and conditional. It is absolute with regard to all images that could be the object of worship, and it is conditional with regards to forms imitating living bodies. We refer to the saying of the Prophet (pbuh) in which he condemned artists who try to 'ape' the creation of God: in their afterlife they will be ordered to give life to their works and will suffer from their incapacity to do so. This hadith (saying of the Prophet, pbuh) has been interpreted in different ways. In general it has been understood as condemning intrinsically blasphemous intention, and therefore Islam tolerates anthropomorphic art forms on condition that they do not create the illusion of living beings. In miniature painting, for instance, central perspective suggesting 3-dimensional space is avoided. In focusing more on the intention than the deed: in the Persian and Indian world especially, it was argued that an image which does not claim to imitate the real being, but is no more than an allusion to it, is allowed. Hence the absence in them of shadows and perspective. No mosque, however, has ever been decorated with anthropomorphic images.
The Quran says: "We offered the Trust (amaanah) unto the Heavens and the Earth and the Mountains, but they shrank from bearing it and were afraid of it. And man assumed it... <Al-Ahzab-The Confederates, 33:72> This Trust is merely potential in ordinary man. It is actual in perfect man: in Messengers (rasul), Prophets (anbiya), and saints (awliya). In them it overflows from the inward to the outward, shining forth even in their bodily appearance. Fearing to offend this divine trust within man, Islamic art shrinks from depicting the Messengers, Prophets and Saints. It is through them that the theomorphic nature of man becomes manifest, but this theomorphism is a secret whose appearance in the corporeal world remains ungraspable.
As indicated in Background Notes 4, the decorative arts in Islam are marked by a remarkable degree of stylistic consistency which has been applied to a broad range of materials, each of which had a craft-base of its own, the history of which often traces back to pre-Islamic times. The stylistic coherence within the Islamic world and the many variations of its basic themes across time, influenced as they were by local artistic traditions, are all part of the fascination of this art. In Muslim architecture virtually any surface may be regarded as worthy of receiving elaborate decoration and this is particularly apparent in religious architecture, but this principle extends out to woodwork, ceramics, textiles, metalwork, books and many other art forms.
Stonework
There is an East–West divide in basic Islamic architectural techniques that derives from earlier, pre-Islamic traditions. In the Persian/Iranian sphere of influence the principle building material tends to be brick, whereas in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, stone is far more common, at least for monumental building.
The earliest Islamic monuments, dating from the Umayyad period, clearly continue the Roman/Byzantine tradition in their typical structures and in their use of dressed and carved stone. These techniques continued under later dynasties in Egypt and Syria (the Fatimids, Zangids, Ayyubids and Mamelukes). This architecture is characterised by its monumental scale, its relative simplicity of form and a somewhat sombre tone. The deep carving, ordered in panelled schemes, with calligraphic bands and geometrical and arabesque motifs, make an impressive contrast against great expanses of undecorated surfaces.
In Asia Minor the Seljuks, and later the Ottomans, continued the traditions both of ashlar building and of stone carving. Under the Seljuks a more plastic style of stone-carving was introduced, based on the stucco work of their predecessors in Iran. This gave rise to a rich tradition of that used all the familiar elements of Islamic decoration in a dazzling profusion of examples. The strength and vitality of this tradition of carved stonework continued up to the beginning of the 16th/10th century, gradually becoming less exuberant during the Ottoman period.
A separate tradition of architectural stonework developed on the Indian sub-continent, again derived from pre-Islamic sources. The early Turkish conquerors of India introduced entirely new, and in many ways quite opposite, architectural concepts to the sub-continent, but the synthesis that arose from the meeting of Hindu and Islamic traditions produced a great range of marvellous buildings, and countless examples of exquisite carved and inlaid stone decoration.
Brickwork
As mentioned above, brickwork was the favoured building technique in the eastern Islamic provinces of Iraq and Iran, the tradition originating in the ancient civilisations of this area. Typically, however, in the hands of Muslim builders, brickwork was soon being used in quite novel and more decorative ways than in the past. In fact there is a well-defined progression in the use of brick in eastern Islam, from purely structural purposes towards ever greater decorative complexity.
The first stage (in the 11th/5thcentury) saw an increasing variety of brick bonds that created relief patterns of light and shade to great effect. The enthusiasm for this technique was such that some buildings featured dozens of different bond-patterns, veritable showcases of brick design.
Later, carved ornamental inserts were used to break up the tedium of plain bonding; these were soon moulded before being fired, in a whole variety of motifs. In the next stage these brick inserts were glazed, a technique that lead naturally on to entire walls and domes being invested with coloured glazed bricks, by which time the structural and decorative functions of brickwork had more or less separated out. Over time these glazed bricks were gradually reduced in thickness until they were virtually tiles – and the possibility of a whole new era of architectural ornament was created.
Ceramic tiles and ceramic mosaic
Coloured glaze was part of the repertoire of decoration in the architecture of the Ancient middle-east, in both Egypt and Mesopotamia – by the time Islam arrived on the scene however, these techniques had been long forgotten. The earliest Islamic monuments made extensive use of mosaic as both floor and wall decoration, but these were very much in the still-flourishing tradition of late-Antiquity. It was not really until the 12th/6thcentury that architectural ceramics began to be used extensively in an Islamic setting (by way of the progression described above). The gradual development of suitable ceramic glazes, in both pottery and tile-work, represented a whole series of technological advances, and as such was as much a scientific/technological achievement as an artistic one. The enthusiasm for the intense colours produced by these techniques meant that they were eventually transmitted right across the Islamic world, from the Atlantic to Central Asia.
Ceramic tiles are found in most Muslim countries, using an extensive range of techniques that include high moulded relief, polychrome, lustre-ware and sgraffito. In addition, sophisticated techniques were developed that used pieces of cut-tiles, bonded together with plaster, to form elaborate, multi-coloured mosaic panels. The latter method was particularly favoured in the lands that came under Timurid influence (Iran and Transoxiana), and in the Islamic far-West (Spain and Morocco).
The broad area that fell under Iranian influence had a long, independent tradition of ceramic architectural revetment, known as kashi, which reached its first great achievement in the 14th/8thcentury and was sustained through the Timurid and Safavid periods. Each element of the traditional Islamic decorative canon, geometric and vegetal arabesque forms, together with calligraphy, is used but with great local variations of style.
The use of cut-tile mosaic seems to have come into favour in the Islamic West (the Maghreb) with the appearance of the Berber dynasties in the 12th-13th centuries (6th-7th). Known as zellij, it is almost exclusively dedicated to geometrical arrangements in this part of the world. The Maghreb (Spain and Morocco) had long followed an independent cultural existence, developing its own characteristic architectural and decorative forms. The particular specialty here was always an intense geometric patterning, a tradition that has lasted right up to the modern period.
Stucco/Plasterwork
Plaster was a well-established building material prior to the Islamic conquests both in Iran, where it had been used to cover rough, rubble walls for centuries, and to a lesser extent in the Classical, Mediterranean world. This was a readily available material in the Middle-east, and was used in Islamic architecture from the very earliest periods (in Syria and Iraq), from where it fairly rapidly spread to the rest of the Muslim world.
Its earlier forms followed late-Classical and Sassanian models, but Islamic tastes were soon asserted, inclining towards a flattening of the decorated surface, the emphasis on symmetry, its division into distinct, evenly laid-out panels, and the use of abstract rather than naturalistic motifs.
Plaster, a singularly useful material that leant itself to moulding and carving in a variety of ways, became a staple of Islamic architecture. Perhaps because of its plasticity as a medium it was less frequently used for purely geometric designs, and was more often used in vegetal-arabesque arrangements. It could also, of course, be painted or gilded.
In essence, plaster (on its own or in conjunction with ceramics) was the perfect medium for transforming surfaces - which was always the primary concern in Islamic architecture. In Islamic art generally, the underlying intention is bound up with the notion of the dissolution of matter, of transcendence.
Woodwork
Since wood is a comparatively scarce material in many parts of the Islamic world it perhaps not surprising that it enjoyed a higher status as a material than elsewhere and, at its best, displays the very highest levels of workmanship. Traditionally, it was used for doors and window shutters which are frequently inlaid, but the finest work is generally found on pulpits (minbar), the key piece of furniture in the mosque from which Friday sermons are preached. Many highly sophisticated techniques were developed to create intricate decoration; in the finer examples ebony and other precious woods are used as inlays, together with ivory and mother-of-pearl. The carving in these objects often has a concentrated, almost lapidary detail. In the Islamic world the skills of carpentry were traditionally associated with geometry. The 14th/8th century historian Ibn Khuldun (who was presumably expressing a generally held belief) asserted that all the leading Greek geometricians were masters of this craft. Some surviving examples of 12th/6th century woodwork indicate that the genre of complex, interlacing geometrical designs in the girih mode were relatively common by this time, and may have been expressed in this architectural medium before any other (after their probable invention as Qur’anic illumination in the 10th/4th century; see artefacts).
Certain architectural features have become fixed and eternal. In this modern world, they help us find our architectural roots and remain true to our identity. Almost every architectural structure addresses, in a direct sense, cultural identity and philosophy within a physical context. If we want to understand, appreciate, and evaluate the architectural quality of a building, we need to develop a sense of dimension, topography, climate, material, structure, and proportion, and of the surrounding physical environment -- both natural and human-made. This sense goes far beyond the building's ability to serve utilitarian needs.
The Islamic world, and the Middle East in particular, is undergoing a transformation today unprecedented in its history, writes architect Garry Martin in the essay "Building in the Middle East Today, in search of a Direction." Oil wealth, along with social and political change, have threatened Islamic culture and traditions. This identity crisis is readily apparent in architectural design."
A desire for rapid development, Martin notes, brought to the Middle East the massive importation of Western technology, planning, design and constructional expertise. Many of the new buildings in the Middle East, continues Martin, are direct imitations of Western models that were designed for another culture, and they are creating an alien environment in Islamic communities.
Many Muslim planners and architects are reacting to this invasion of Western culture by reasserting their Islamic heritage. This leads to the questions of just what constitutes Islamic architecture! Central to this definition, Martin explains, is the Islamic concept of Unity, which was a determining factor in integrating Islamic societies. Islamic architecture was in harmony with the people, their environment and their Creator, Martin adds. Yet no strict rules were applied to govern Islamic architecture. The great mosques of Cordoba, Edirne and Shah Jahan each used local geometry, local materials, local building methods to express in their own ways the order, harmony and unity of Islamic architecture. When the major monuments of Islamic architecture are examined, Martin writes, they reveal complex geometrical relationships, a studied hierarchy of form and ornament, and great depths of symbolic meaning.
But in the 20th century, the Islamic concepts of unity, harmony and continuity often are forgotten in the rush for industrial development. Martin lists three directions contemporary Islamic architecture has taken.
One approach is to completely ignore the past and produce Western-oriented architecture that ignores the Islamic spirit and undermines traditional culture.
The opposite approach involves a retreat, at least superficially, to the Islamic architectural past. This can result in hybrid buildings where traditional facades of arches and domes are grafted onto modern high-rises.
A third approach, Martin notes, is to understand the essence of Islamic architecture and to allow modern building technology to be a tool in the expression of this essence. Writes Martin, "Architects working today can take advantage of opportunities that new materials and mass production techniques offer. They have an opportunity to explore and transform the possibilities of the machine age for the enrichment of architecture in the same way that craftsmen explored the nature of geometrical and arabesque patterns..." The forms that would evolve from this approach, adds Martin, would have a regional identity, a stylistic evolution and a relevance to the eternal principles of Islam.
During the Islamic civilization, around 10th century, the activity of exploring pattern and symmetry truly blossomed. For a period of about 400 years there was vigorous creativity. This resulted in a large number of sophisticated geometrical patterns and two of the most sublime monuments to symmetry that have ever been built- namely, the Nasrid Palace of Alhambra in Granada in Spain and the Taj Mahal in Agra in India.
The Alhambra is a walled city and fortress in Granada, Spain. It was built during the last Islamic sultanate on the Iberian peninsula, the Nasrid Dynasty (1238-1492). The palace is lavishly decorated with stone and wood carvings and tile patterns on most of the ceilings, walls, and floors. Islamic art does not use
representations of living beings, but heavily uses geometric patterns, especially symmetric (repeating) patterns.
As for the Taj Mahal, Western historians have noted that its architectural beauty has never been surpassed. The Taj is the most beautiful monument built by the Mughals, the Muslim rulers of India. It was built by a Muslim, Emperor Shah Jahan (died 1666 C.E.) in the memory of his dear wife and queen Mumtaz Mahal. Taj Mahal (meaning Crown Palace) is a Mausoleum that houses the grave of queen Mumtaz Mahal at the lower chamber. It is built entirely of white marble. Its stunning architectural beauty is beyond adequate description, particularly at dawn and sunset. The Taj seems to glow in the light of the full moon. It is an "elegy in marble" or some say an expression of a "dream."
